ceramicafandomcom-20200216-history
Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (born October 18, 1130, Yuxi, Fujian province, China – died April 23, 1200, China) was a Song Dynasty (960-1279) Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China. His contribution to Chinese philosophy included his assigning special significance to the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean (the Four Books), his emphasis on the investigation of things (gewu), and the synthesis of all fundamental Confucian concepts. Life Zhu Xi was originally from Fujian, where his father worked as the head of various departments, but left due to disgust with government connivance with Mongol invaders. From 1158 he studied under Li Tong, who followed the Neo-Confucian tradition of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi. He rebuilt and taught at the famous White Deer Grotto Academy for some time. Throughout his life Zhu Xi was perpetually a temple guardian, preferring to study, write, and talk with other scholars in the quiet. He repeatedly declined official positions. In 1179 he was appointed a prefect and got demoted 3 years later for attacking the incompetency of some officials. There were several instances of receiving an appointment and subsequently being demoted. Even though his teachings had been severely attacked by establishment figures, almost a thousand people attended his funeral.Chan 1963: 588. In 1241 his tablet was placed in the Confucian Temple. Teachings The Four Books During the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi's teachings were considered to be unorthodox. Rather than focusing on the Book of Changes like other Neo-Confucians, he chose to emphasize the Four Books: the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius as the core curriculum for aspiring scholar officials. For all these classics he wrote extensive commentaries that were not widely recognized in his time; however, they later became accepted as their standard commentaries. The Four Books served as the basis of civil service examinations all the way down to 1905.Chan 1963: 589. Vital force (qi), principle (li), and the Great Ultimate (taiji) Zhu Xi maintained that all things are brought into being by the union two universal aspects of reality: qi, sometimes translated as vital (or physical, material) force; and li, sometimes translated as rational principle (or law). The source and sum of li is the Taiji (Wade-Giles: Tai Chi), meaning the Great Ultimate. The source of qi is not so clearly stated by Zhu Xi, leading some authorities to maintain that he was a metaphysical monist and others to maintain that he was a metaphysical dualist. According to Zhu Xi's theory, every physical object and every person has its li and therefore has contact in its metaphysical core with the Taiji. What is referred to as the human soul, mind, or spirit is understood as the Taiji, or the supreme regulative principle, as it works its way out in a person. Qi and li operate together in mutual dependence. They are mutually aspective in all creatures in the universe. These two aspects are manifested in the creation of substantial entities. When their activity is waxing (rapid or expansive), that is the yang energy mode. When their activity is waning (slow or contractive), that is the yin energy mode. The yang and yin phases constantly interact, each gaining and losing dominance over the other. In the process of the waxing and waning, the alternation of these fundamental vibrations, the so called five elements (fire, water, wood, metal, and earth) evolve. In terms of li and qi, Zhu Xi's system strongly resembles Buddhist ideas of li (again, principle) and shi (affairs, matters), though Zhu Xi and his followers strongly argued that they were not copying Buddhist ideas. Instead, they held, they were using concepts already present long before in the Book of Changes. Zhu Xi discussed how he saw the Great Ultimate concept to be compatible with principle of Taoism, but his concept of Taiji was different from the understanding of Tao in Daoism. Where Taiji is a differentiating principle that results in the emergence of something new, Dao is still and silent, operating to reduce all things to equality and indistinguishability. He argued that there is a central harmony that is not static or empty but was dynamic, and that the Great Ultimate is itself in constant creative activity. Human nature Zhu Xi considered the earlier Confucian Xun Zi to be a heretic for departing from Mencius' idea of innate human goodness. Even if people displayed immoral behaviour, the supreme regulative principle was good. The cause of immoral actions is qi. Zhu Xi's metaphysics is that everything contains li and qi. Li is the principle that is in everything and governs the universe. Each person has a perfect li. As such, individuals should act perfectly moral. However, while li is the underlying structure, qi is also part of everything. Qi obscures our perfect moral nature. The task of moral cultivation is to clear our qi. If our qi is clear and balanced, then we will act perfectly moral. Knowledge and action According to Zhu Xi, knowledge comes first, but action is more important.The Complete Works of Chu Hsi, section 20 in Chan 1963: 609. This is in contrast to Wang Yangming's doctrine of the unity of knowledge and action. The investigation of things and the extension of knowledge Zhu Xi advocated gewu, the investigation of the things. How to investigate and what these things are is the source of much debate. To Zhu Xi, the things are moral principles and the investigation involves paying attention to everything in both books and affairs''The Complete Works of Chu Hsi'', section 26 in Chan 1963: 609. because "moral principles are quite inexhaustible".The Complete Works of Chu Hsi, section 27 in Chan 1963: 610. Religion Zhu Xi did not hold to traditional ideas of God or Heaven (Tian), though he discussed how his own ideas mirrored the traditional concepts. He encouraged an agnostic tendency within Confucianism, because he believed that the Great Ultimate was a rational principle, and he discussed it as an intelligent and ordering will behind the universe. He did not promote the worship of spirits and offerings to images. Although he practiced some forms of ancestor worship, he disagreed that the souls of ancestors existed, believing instead that ancestor worship is a form of remembrance and gratitude. Meditation Zhu Xi practiced a form of daily meditation similar to, but not the same as, Buddhist dhyana or chan ding (Wade-Giles: ch'an-ting). His meditation did not require the cessation of all thinking as in Buddhism; rather, it was characterised by quiet introspection that helped to balance various aspects of one's personality and allowed for focused thought and concentration. His form of meditation was by nature Confucian in the sense that it was concerned with morality. His meditation attempted to reason and feel in harmony with the universe. He believed that this type of meditation brought humanity closer together and more into harmony. On teaching, learning, and the creation of an academy Zhu Xi heavily focused his energy on teaching, claiming that learning is the only way to sagehood. He wished to make the pursuit of sagehood attainable to all men. He lamented more modern printing techniques and the proliferation of books that ensued. This, he believed, made students less appreciative and focused on books, simply because there were more books to read than before. Therefore, he attempted to redefine how students should learn and read. In fact, disappointed by local schools in China, he established his own academy, White Deer Hollow Academy, to instruct students properly and in the proper fashion. Taoist and Buddhist influence on Zhu Xi Zhu Xi wrote what was to became the orthodox Confucian interpretation of a number of concepts in Taoism and Buddhism. While he appeared to have adopted some ideas from these competing systems of thought, unlike previous Neo-Confucians he strictly abided by the Confucian doctrine of active moral cultivation. He found Buddhist principles to be darkening and deluding the original mind''The Complete Works of Chu Hsi'', section 147 in Chan 1963: 653. as well as destroying human relations.The Complete Works of Chu Hsi, section 138 in Chan 1963: 647. Zhu Xi's influence From 1313 to 1905, Zhu Xi's commentaries on the Four Books formed the basis of civil service examinations in China.Chan 1963: 589. His teachings were to dominate Neo-Confucians such as Wang Fuzhi, though dissenters would later emerge such as Wang Yangming and the School of Mind two and a half centuries later. His philosophy survived the Intellectual Revolution of 1917, and later Feng Youlan would interpret his conception of li, qi, and taiji into a new metaphysical theory. He was also influential in Japan known as Shushigaku (朱子学, School of Zhu Xi), and in Korea known as Jujahak (주자학), where it became an orthodoxy. Achievements of Zhu Xi in the art of calligraphy This renowned neo-Confucianist, educator and thinker from Southern Sung dynasty had, since early age, followed his father and a number of great calligraphers at the time in practicing this art. At first he learnt the style of Cao Cao but later specialized in the regular script of Zhong Yao and the running cursive script of Yan Zhenqing. Throughout his life, as he never ceased practicing, he has reached a distinctive level in the art characteristic of overpowering strength, and superbness. Since then, though his manuscripts left to the world are piecemeal, and incomplete, they have been regarded as invaluable for collection. Whilst he had bequeathed at posterity quite a number of calligraphy which had been highly acclaimed in history, it is regrettable that most of them were lost. Moreover, since the Yuan dynasty, his school of thoughts had been adopted as the official ideology of China. His thoughts not only profoundly affected traditional Chinese thinking and culture but also spread outside China with tremendous influence. He was hailed as one of the ten philosophers of the Confucianism School. His fame in the realm of thoughts was so great that even his brilliance in calligraphy was overshadowed. He was skillful in running and cursive scripts and more especially in large characters. His artworks extant consist mainly of short written notes in running script and rarely of large characters. His authentic manuscripts are collected by Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liao Ning Province Museum, China; Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are private collections in China and overseas. The 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》, one of Zhu Xi master piece in Running-cursive script, is an oversea private collection. 》]] 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 contains three separate parts: 1) Title 2) 102 characters by Zhu Xi in running cursive scripts 3) The postscripts by Wen Tianxiang (1236～1283) of Sung dynasty, Fang Xiaoru (1375～1402), Zhu Yunming (1460-1526), Tang Yin (1470～1523) and Hai Rui (1514～1587) of the Ming dynasty. Calligraphy Style The calligraphy of Zhu Xi had been acclaimed as acquiring the style of the Han and Wei dynasties . He was Skillful in the central tip, and his brush strokes are smooth and round, steady yet flowing in the movements without any trace of frivolity and abruptness . Indeed, his calligraphy possesses stability and elegance in construction with a continuous flow of energy. Without trying to be pretentious or intentional, his written characters are well-balanced, natural and unconventional. As he was a patriarch of Confucianism philosophy, it is understandable that his learning permeated in all his writings with due respect for traditional standards. He maintained that while rules had to be observed for each word, there should be room for tolerance, multiplicity and naturalness. In other words, calligraphy had to observe rules and at the same time not bound by them so as to express the quality of naturalness. Its small wonder that his calligraphy had been highly esteemed throughout the centuries, by great personages as follows: Tao Chung Yi (around 1329～1412) of Ming dynasty: Whilst Master Zhu inherited the orthodox teaching and propagated it to the realm of sages and yet he was also proficient in running and cursive scripts, especially in large characters. His execution of brush was well-poised and elegant. However piecemeal or isolated his manuscripts, they were eagerly sought after and treasured. Wang Sai Ching (1526-1590) of Ming dynasty: The brush strokes in his calligraphy were swift without attempting at formality, yet none of his strokes and dots were not in conformity with the rules of calligraphy. Wen Tianxiang of Sung dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi: People in the olden days said that there was embedded the bones of loyal subject in the calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing. Observing the execution of brush strokes by Zhu Xi, I am indeed convinced of the truth of this opinion. Zhu Yunming of Ming dynasty in his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi: Master Zhu was loyal, learned and a great scholar through out ages . He was superb in calligraphy although he did not write much in his lifetime and hence they were rarely seen in later ages. This roll had been collected by Wong Sze Ma for a long time and of late, it appeared in the world. I chanced to see it once and whilst I regretted that I did not try to study it extensively until now, in the study room of my friend, I was so lucky to see it again. This showed that I am destined to see the manuscripts of master Zhu. I therefore wrote this preface for my intention. Hai Rui of Ming dynasty in n his postscript for the 《Thatched Hut Hand Scroll》 by Zhu Xi: The writings are enticing, delicate, elegant and outstanding. Truly such calligraphy piece is the wonder of nature. Trivia *''Life'' magazine ranked Zhu Xi as the forty-fifth most important person in the last millennium. See also *Confucianism *Neo-Confucianism *Wang Yangming *Wang Fuzhi *Feng Youlan *Yuelu Academy *White Deer Grotto Academy *Classical Chinese writers * Fujiwara Seika -- Japanese disciple of Zhu Xi * Hayashi Razan -- Seika's student & Tokugawa political theorist * Hayashi Gahō -- Tokugawa shogunate academician/scholar/bureaucrat * Kaibara Ekken -- Edo period writer/botanist/philosopher Footnotes and references *Chan, Wing-tsit (translated and compiled). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963. Further reading *J. Percy Bruce. Chu Hsi and His Masters, Probsthain & Co., London, 1922. *Daniel K. Gardner. Learning To Be a sage, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990. *Bruce E. Carpenter. 'Chu Hsi and the Art of Reading' in Tezukayama University Review (Tezukayama daigaku ronshū), Nara, Japan, no. 15, 1977, pp. 13-18. ISSN 0385-7743 *Wing-tsit Chan, Chu Hsi: Life and Thought (1987) *Wing-tsit Chan, Chu Hsi: New Studies (1989) *Hoyt Cleveland Tillman, Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch‘en Liang's Challenge to Chu Hsi (1982) *Wm. Theodore de Bary, Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart (1981), on the development of Zhu Xi's thought after his death *Wing-tsit Chan (ed.), Chu Hsi and Neo-Confucianism (1986), a set of conference papers *Donald J. Munro, Images of Human Nature: A Sung Portrait (1988), an analysis of the concept of human nature in Zhu Xi's thought Translations *Chan, Wing-tsit. Reflections On Things at Hand, New York, 1967. External links *Chu Hsi and Divination - Joseph A. Adler *Stillness & Activity - Joseph A. Adler * Category:12th century philosophers Category:Chinese scholars Category:Chinese philosophers Category:Song Dynasty politicians Category:People from Fujian Category:1130 births Category:1200 deaths Category:Chinese Confucianists de:Zhu Xi es:Zhu Xi fr:Zhu Xi zh-classical:朱熹 ka:ჯუ სი hu:Zhu Xi nl:Zhu Xi ja:朱子 no:Zhu Xi fi:Zhu Xi zh:朱熹